Internal Family Systems as a Possible Mode of Emotional Intelligence Training to Enhance Team Cohesion and Athletic Performance

Department of Sports Studies, Bishop’s University
SPO 402: Course Independent Studies
Dr. Rafael A. B. Tedesqui
Summer 2023
July 21, 2023

This literature review revealed that Emotional Intelligence is beneficial for athletes and sports teams, as it has a positive correlation with team cohesion in sports, athletic performance and the application of mental skills. Research shows that Emotional Intelligence (EI) in many different contexts, including sport, can be trained. It remains unclear how EI can best be trained in a sport context. I suspect that Internal Family Systems (IFS) would be a successful model for EI intervention training in the sport context. IFS has been shown to be an effective tool to train EI in other contexts, such as in the reduction of depressive symptoms in female University students (Haddock, Weiler, Trump & Henry, 2017) and to enhance communications and effective work relationships in corporate employees (Dolbier, Soderstrom & Steinhardt, 2011).  The question left unanswered is would EI training interventions inspired by and based upon the IFS model applied in a sport context promote team cohesion and improve athletic performance?

Understanding EI

Emotional Intelligence was defined as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate amongst them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).  Salovey and Mayer, (1990) also state that EI includes “the recognition and use of one’s own and others’ emotional states to solve problems and regulate behavior”. Salovey and Mayer view emotions as organized responses involving many psychological subsystems including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. “Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has positively or negatively valenced meaning for the individual.”  (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 186).   For example, a baseball batter strikes out (this is the event, internal in that his own performance was sub optimal, along with the external negative consequence of another out in the inning) he feels disappointment, anger, frustration (emotions that arise in reaction to the event of striking out) and he finds himself self-critical upon his return to the bench (an internal negative response and meaning,). This player may also have physiological response of increased heart rate, or tearing eyes or increased muscular tension.  This player’s cognitive, motivational and experiential systems may determine what his next action is, will he be motivated to figure out what needs to be done the next at bat to perform better?  Does he have the cognitive ability to recognize what caused the strike out?  and does he have the experiential skill to regain focus and be productive?  Or will he be stuck with self-criticism and unable to regain focus to perform better at the next at bat.  The Salovey and Mayer concept of emotion closely resembles that of the American Psychological Association (APA), “a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral and physiological elements.” Emotions are how individuals react to matters or situations they find personally significant. Throughout my review of the literature it is apparent that emotions and thoughts or cognitions are inextricably intertwined.  The framework of Emotional Intelligence presented by Salovey and Mayer (1990) is that 1) an emotion arises in response to an event, which can be internal or external, positive or negative; 2) motivational forces then direct cognitive activities. In this sequence 1) is the  triggering event which results in an emotion and; 2) is the thought and behavioral reaction or response.

In a follow up study in 2016 by Mayer, Caruso and Salovey the authors updated the Salovey and Mayer (1990) ability model of EI.  Four branches or components of EI were identified and added types of reasoning to each branch: 1) perceiving emotion,  2) facilitating thought using emotion, 3) understanding emotions and, 4) managing emotions.  The 2016 article also identified seven principles of ability EI, the two most relevant being that intelligent problem solving does not correspond neatly to intelligent behavior,  and EI is a member of the class of broad intelligence focused on HOT information processing (meaning reasoning with information of significance to an individual…matters that matter!) Some of the notes corresponding with these principles include that emotionally stable, outgoing and conscientious people may be emotionally intelligent or not. Even though royalties are received by the authors on the sales of the MSCEIT survey (an ability EI survey developed by the authors) the strength of this article is the proffer that “by using the principles developed to understand how people solve problems in the area of emotions, we can improve education in the subject matter.”  (Mayer et al, 2016).  How to educate or train EI was not discussed.

Types of EI

There is no consensus in the literature of a single model of EI. Kopp, Reichert and Jekauc (2021) noted that there is no agreement made on a definitive model and measurement of EI. The current conceptualizations include two models, Trait EI and Ability EI, and a third, referred to as Mixed Model EI, includes Ability EI characteristics, and anything else that doesn’t clearly fit into just trait or ability EI. Trait and Ability EI were generally accepted in the literature by 2000, and Mixed Model EI by 2005 (O’Connor, Hill, Kaya & Martin, 2019). Kopp, Reichert and Jekauc (2021) explained the difference between trait and ability EI. Trait EI is viewed as a disposition, which reflects the way people ordinarily act in emotional situations. Trait theory implies EI is about how individuals believe they can cope with emotional situations. EI is something innate which does not need to be consciously learned.  This is typically assessed through questions and rating scales, for instance with the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue): Petrides and Furnham, (2001).  Ability EI is a cognitive capability able to be trained and enhanced through time (Kopp, Reichert & Jekauc, 2021). The ability EI perspective conceives EI as “the cooperative combination of intelligence and emotion”. The four branch model implemented by Mayer and Salovey (2016) is viewed as the general model of ability EI. Kopp, Reichert and Jekauc (2021) note that ability EI is evaluated with IQ-like performance tests. Based on a number of hypothetical scenarios that have to be solved, the ability EI of the individuals is measured. The Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT): Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso, (2002a) is the most commonly applied ability-measurement and has been the only test available for a long time. Mixed Model EI is a combination of Ability EI and personality. Two models are generally thought to fall under the mixed model of emotional intelligence – Bar-On’s Model and Goleman’s Competence Model.  In this review I have seen the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Bar-On, R. (1997a) used to measure mixed model EI. O’Connor, Hill, Kaya, & Martin, (2019) reviewed six different Emotional Intelligence scales and provided a set of recommendations regarding which of these measures is appropriate to use across various research and applied scenarios.  For instance, athletic coaches may be tested with the MSCEIT for ability EI to assess team composition decision making skills, whereas teachers may be tested with the TEIQue for trait EI, to assess everyday ability to cope with stress.

The focus of this review is the ability model of EI. Ability EI is the type of EI that can be trained and enhanced. Based on studies in this review it appears that ability EI can be trained both in those individuals high in trait EI, and lacking in trait EI, or anywhere on the continuum in between. (Mattingly & Kraiger, 2018). Because ability EI assumes EI can be trained, and the query of this review relates to EI training interventions it is sensible that the ability model of EI is the focus.  (Mayer et al, 2016).

EI and Team Cohesion

EI can benefit team cohesion which in turn can enable high athletic performance. Chan and Mallett (2011) agreed that EI is an important part of coaching and that “emotional management can be positively used to enable consistent high performance.”  The Chan et al (2011) article is a review which talks about the application of EI, the ability to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions.  “Perceive” is to be attuned to emotions, “use” is to be able to conceptualize needs, “understand” is to determine why a player (or self) is experiencing an emotion and “manage” is to respond appropriately to the emotion.  A reflection of this article is that mirror neurons may enable one emotion to spread from one person to another. This may be a factor to be considered in promoting positive team cohesion through improved EI. The authors give examples of behaviors and actions of emotionally intelligent coaches that give positive boosts to athletes such as verbal acknowledgment, recognition to commitment and effort, sharing a personal best, being aware of concerns and modeling valued behaviors. Team cohesion has been seen as a crucial element in athletic settings and both athletes and coaches are involved in creating team cohesion. (Gershgoren et al. 2016).  For example, to study team cohesion Gershgoren et al. (2016) assessed team chemistry in elite soccer teams, using a small sample of both coaches and players from the Israeli Premier League. Semi-structured interview guides were used to collect information from participants. The purpose of the study was to establish a conceptual framework of team chemistry components. The results included four components being identified, the pertinent two being coach-player interactions (EI of coaches) and interactions among players (player EI). The authors note that team chemistry represents the interacting components of a team that “spin the web of a team” and determines its ability to perform. Gershgoren et al (2016) goes on to state that “positive energy stems from emotional intelligence.” 

Strengthening team cohesion can be enhanced by increasing EI.  “The ability to read the feelings, thoughts, and intentions of others correctly has been referred to as empathic accuracy…empathic accuracy is similar to what is commonly referred to as emotional intelligence.  Successful coaches have high emotional intelligence…”.  (Gilbert, 2017).  A case study conducted by Hodge, Henry and Smith (2014) found that EI has a significant relationship with team cohesion and motivational climate which enabled an 85% winning percentage in the 2004-2011 All Blacks elite rugby team. The Hodge et al (2014) article used a qualitative research design with interviews of open ended questions of the 2004-2011 All Blacks rugby team.  The critical theme of the article was that EI is a skill which coincides with making better people, regarding the development of both interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies (perceiving and managing emotions.) This article connected the idea that team cohesion is the emotional side of creating an effective motivational climate, and that EI has a meaningful relationship with coaching efficacy and also team performance.  A quote from this article was “the opposite of fear is love, that’s about connections.”   The importance of this quote is explained as follows:

The following example from Smith focused on teammate relationships and love: [I was reading about the ancient] Spartans. They were hugely courageous warriors and they were always looking for what the opposite of fear was so that they could develop that in their warriors. They found it wasn’t courage, and it wasn’t bravery, it was love. That’s about connections. So we selected the right people and worked really hard on developing… [better people] who had strong connections, played for themselves, but also played for each other, and people they loved. And they loved each other clearly, within the All Blacks. I think… [that was] a real source of performance.

A practical suggestion given by the authors was to learn how to be an emotionally intelligent coach by developing intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of perceiving emotions in self and others.  The authors did not indicate how that should be accomplished.

EI and Athletic Performance

Several studies linked EI and athletic performance. In a meta-analytical study, Kopp and Jekauc (2018) looked at 21 studies assessing the link between EI and sport performance in competitive sport. They found that  “the capacity of athletes to perceive emotions, understand and manage them in an effort to optimize their sports performance, appears to be an essential part of athletic sports success.”  The meta-analysis by Kopp and Jekauc (2018) on the influence of EI on sports performance demonstrated a small positive association that higher EI has been linked to higher sports performance and therefore, the authors concluded that EI could be considered as a weak determinant of performance in sports.  This seems to agree with Salovey and Mayer (1990 and 2016) that EI can be used to motivate and assist performance at complex intellectual tasks.

However, a subsequent study did NOT confirm that 2018 conclusion. The study by Kopp, Reichert and Jekauc (2021) was conducted again on whether EI is a determinant of sport performance. They carried a cross-sectional nationwide survey study in Germany of active competitive sport athletes which they compared trait EI and ability EI in relationship with athletic performance.  Online surveys were given to male and female athletes, almost all who were German nationals. After self-report surveys, MSCEIT for ability EI and TEIQueST for trait EI, the findings were that trait EI did not significantly predict level of expertise and sport success.  Ability EI did not predict level of expertise, nor self-assessment of athletic performance. The study’s authors consider emotions as an inextricable feature of experience, behavior and interactions.  Another outcome of this research was that EI has different results in different sports. The study recommended that future research should categorize sports in terms of emotional demands. This study did have its weaknesses, such as only a 19.5% response rate to the online survey, all self-report and no objective sports performance data was used. Nothing in this study revealed if any of the respondents received any EI training intervention prior to taking the survey. Even studies with considerable weaknesses add information to an under researched topic. Here the contribution is that different sports may have different EI demands. Researchers can also design stronger studies by considering the weaknesses of others’ studies.

An example of a study that assessed the indirect effect of EI on performance was Castro-Sánchez et al’s investigation with semi-pro Spanish athletes. Castro-Sánchez, Zurita-Ortega, Chacón-Cuberos, López-Gutiérrez, and Zafra-Santos (2018)  looked at the effect of EI on motivational climate and anxiety levels, and ultimately performance in different categories of sport. Analysis was done through multi group structural equation analysis. This study shows how the task-oriented motivational climate supported by emotional intelligence can act preventively in the face of anxiety states in athletes. The authors found that the development of  EI could prevent anxiety states and improve performance in athletes.  (Castro-Sánchez et al, 2018).  EI promotes a task-oriented climate (an environment where skill improvement, individual progress, and cooperation with others is encouraged) in which every individual has an important role on the team. This in turn promotes cooperative learning in team sports. The authors found that perception, management and use of emotions in the context of sports strongly influence performance, but the study of emotional factors related to sport is still scarce.  According to the authors, it is necessary to work on emotional aspects as much as on the other cognitive, physical, technical and tactical factors . The athlete’s emotional state exerts a great deal of influence on the performance and development of the activity.   

Castro-Sánchez et al’s ( 2018) idea that perception, management and use of emotions in the context of sports strongly influence performance seemed to be confirmed in a study by Mercedes-Rubio and Ángel (2023). Both have similar, although not exact, ideas stating that three branches of EI include emotional perception: understood as the ability to resemble and explore one’s own and other people’s feelings; emotional understanding: related to the ability to specify and probe emotions, retrospectively, both one’s own and others and; emotional regulation: related to the ability to investigate and reason about emotions, both interpersonally and intrapersonal.  Moderate levels of anxiety correspond to good sports performance, which can be obtained through emotional training (Mercedes-Rubio & Ángel, 2023) The authors established the importance and possibility of providing emotional training to future professional athletes.

EI, Application of Mental Skills and Enhanced Athletic performance

Emotional Intelligence appears to be a modifiable factor in improving psychological skills in athletes, which play a vital role in achieving optimal athletic performance. It is difficult to separate the effect of EI on athletic performance from the effect of EI on the application of mental skills, as one is often discussed in conjunction with the other. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990)  EI can be used to motivate and assist performance at complex intellectual tasks. Mental (sometimes called psychological) skills may be considered complex intellectual tasks.  Without the skill of emotional intelligence, an otherwise equally skilled athlete may not perform as well as an athlete with a greater level of emotional intelligence. (Tinkler, Jooste, and Kruger, 2020).  Tinkler et al (2020) used cross-sectional data obtained from a sample of South African national and university level female field-hockey players.  A correlational research design was adopted of which a pen-and-paper survey containing the Emotional Intelligence Scale and Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 was used to collect the data.  The purpose of the study was to examine the link between EI and sport coping ability of elite (national level) and sub-elite (university level) female field-hockey players in South Africa. They tested both a player’s emotional intelligence and her psychological skills for the purpose of informing interventions that aim to improve a hockey player’s emotional intelligence.  The results revealed a moderately positive correlation between the players’ perception of emotion and coping with adversity, as well as their ability to concentrate. The results showed medium and significant correlation between EI and psychological skills, especially important were EI skills of self-awareness and self-regulation as a significant predictor of  the psychological skills of mental rehearsal and thoughts that promote focus on task-relevant cues. The authors concluded that the psychological skills of motivation, concentration (task relevant focus), maintaining confidence, goal setting and mental rehearsal may be modifiable with EI training, and found that EI influences psychological skill application in high-level field hockey players. This study included a sample size of 60 and questioned generalizability to other populations. However, this study, taken in conjunction with others in this review (eg. Crombie, Lombard, & Noakes, 2011) generalizability to other  team sports appears viable. This study leads to the belief that EI is a precursor, or catalyst to the effective application of mental skills.

Another example of the interconnectedness of EI, athletic performance and the application of mental skills was seen in a study of elite kickboxers. (Devonport, 2006)  The method of this study was semi-structured interviews which the participants spoke of their perception of the contributing attributes to seven mental skills: 1) use of self-talk, 2) relaxations, 3) heightened concentration, 4) self-regulation of arousal, 5) goal setting, 6) coping with being hit, 7) imagery.  The study also noted three psychological characteristics 1) high self-efficacy, 2) high motivation, 3) mental toughness. Participants in the Devonport (2006) study demonstrated varying degrees of emotional intelligence through their ability to monitor and manipulate their emotional states prior to and during competition.  A theme in the literature is developing which correlates EI with enhancement of the same or similar mental skills and psychological characteristics (eg. Tinkler, et al, 2020;  Hodge et al, 2014; Cowden, 2016).

Another study provided support to the idea that EI tends to facilitate athletic performance through its impact on psychological skills. Mercedes-Rubio and Ángel (2023) studied EI and anxiety in the context of pre-competition.  The authors used quantitative, exploratory, descriptive and explanatory methodology and used two surveys, SCAT to measure sport competition anxiety and TMMS-24 to measure EI dimensions of attention, clarity and regulation. The purpose of the study was to analyze the levels of each of the dimensions of emotional intelligence (attention, clarity, and emotional regulation) and their relationship with each of the SCAT items to measure pre-competitive anxiety. The total sample was made up of 165 students who belong to university degrees related to physical activity and sports sciences at University of Almeria, Spain.  The authors concluded that there is a direct and positive relationship between anxiety and emotional intelligence, opining that psychological training in athletes is as important as physical training. 

There are more examples of research connecting EI with mental skills and/or increased performance, albeit in slightly different ways.  Briefly noted here: Cowden (2016) connected mental toughness, EI and coping effectiveness.  They found support for idea of this study being that mental toughness is a mechanism through which EI produces effective coping responses which results in better outcomes being generated.  Lane et al (2010) stated the idea that pleasant emotions correlate with optimal performance and unpleasant emotions correlate with dysfunctional performance, and that EI positively correlated with pleasant emotions. Beatty and Janelle (2019) described how emotional regulation strategies mechanistically influence coordination and execution of motor skills, underlying athletic performance.  They found that emotional reactions also influence the magnitude of force generated. These studies make a connection between increased EI skills, the application of psychological (mental) skills and improved athletic performance. The review of the literature consistently showed that EI, in a variety of ways, is an important skill in the sport context.

Trainability of EI in Sport

The majority of studies reviewed did not suggest or address how to deliver an intervention to athletes to enhance emotional intelligence.  This is a critical gap in the EI research I have reviewed.  A few of the studies alluded to what needs to be trained, but not exactly how.  For instance, in the “implications” section of their study Castro-Sánchez et al ( 2018) suggested the TARGET method for coaches to generate task oriented motivational climates, TARGET being an acronym for Task, Authority, Recognition, Group, Evaluation and Time.  This was not a suggestion how to train EI in athletes.  While the authors did not elaborate on the TARGET method, they did state that “it is also important to practice mentally problematic situations and changes of perspective in order to approach problems on one’s own and to achieve personal growth.”  Beattie and Janelle (2019) suggested the Temporal Influence Model of Emotion Regulation (TIMER) in their study of emotional regulation and motor performance.  However, emotional regulation (emotional management in the Salovey and Mayer four branch model of EI) is only one component of EI.  Below I include articles reviewed which indicate that EI can be trained (as was concluded by Mercedes-Rubio and Ángel, 2023), how EI can be trained, and if EI can be trained in the sport context.

EI Can Be Trained

Research has shown that EI can be trained.  As early as 2001, it appeared that providing activities to develop students’ skills in areas such as self-awareness, emotional self-regulation and other intrapersonal skills, as well interpersonal relationships, seemed to increase their emotional intelligence.  McCarthy, (2001).  Mattingly, V., & Kraiger, K. (2018) was a meta-analytical investigation to assess the effect of training on EI. The authors identified a total of 58 published and unpublished studies that included an emotional intelligence training program using either a pre-post or treatment-control design. Both ability and mixed model EI were included in the study. The authors found that EI training positively affected EI scores regardless of design. The effect of EI training in mostly a business context was examined, with one study included which involved athletes who played cricket (which I include in my review, below). Training on EI was an important determinant of workplace competencies such as reading emotions of self and others, engaging in emotional regulation, self-awareness and relationship management. Mattingly and Kraiger (2018) found that active/experiential EI training was better than passive lectures. The authors’ findings suggest that EI can be trained, but it does not offer how to best train EI.  In fact the authors opine “[g]iven our evidence that training positively affects EI scores, it would be valuable for EI researchers to move beyond straightforward studies that examine if training affects EI to more complex studies as to how and for whom.” 

How EI Can Be Trained

There have been several different methods used to develop and train EI in a non-sports context.  Lim and Lau (2021) reviewed processes of previous ability EI training interventions. They identified 25 training studies that utilized an ability EI measure or used the EI model approach for its training. They found two broad approaches, the development of long-term emotional knowledge by increasing emotional literacy, and by cognitive training of processes subserving EI abilities.  The first method included a variety of activities such as feedback, group work, self-reflection, role play, and focused on experiential learning.  The second used a cognitive framework, such as cognitive enhancement theory. Another approach mentioned not included in the two broad categories was RULER to improve facets of EI (Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, and Regulating).  Lim and Lau found there are multi-model methods to deliver EI training, and the EI related gains after training reflect the plasticity in the cognitive-neural system underpinning EI.  Suggestions for future research are to address what processes and abilities are targeted in EI training interventions, whether there is a method to improve EI abilities using a cost-effective or economical way while still retaining the rigor, reliability and validity of the expected psychological research, and that control groups and randomization should be included. In Sharif, Rezaie, Keshavarzi, Mansoori and Ghadakpoor (2013) it was shown that there was a positive effect of teaching EI on the general health of ICU nurses after a two day workshop where components of emotional intelligence were taught.  This randomized clinical trial was conducted on 52 of 200 in intensive care unit nurses affiliated to Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. The elements in the workshop included self-awareness skills, stress and its symptoms, stress management, the relationship between thoughts and emotions, emotional intelligence, management of emotions, and relationship management and self-management. The result was improved general health in the nurses that had EI training.  In a business context, there is a book by Mackay, 2015, on training the “Emotional Intelligence Mindset” which emphasizes ideas such as people copy people and be a positive role model (remember the mirror neurons in Chan and Mallett, 2011!)  Mackay (2015) pp. 11-29 talks about how to develop EI through self-awareness, which she calls the “cornerstone of emotional intelligence”, self-management where she describes that “understanding your emotional state and thinking and acting on useful thoughts are what is required to self manage.”  Also, understanding your own triggers and to prepare psychologically to prepare a response and find a solution.  Mackay suggests this be accomplished through the use of reflective questions, self analysis, seeking feedback and analyzing behavior.

Training EI in a Sport Context

I came across several methods to train EI in the sports and athletic context.  George Mumford is an author who uses mindfulness training to teach EI to elite professional athletes.  While his books share no empirical research on his use of this method, the tenets of his method are awareness, acceptance, action, assessment and analysis. (Mumford, 2023). Mindfulness and acceptance intervention for athletes was editorialized in Chun-Qing and Baltzell (2019) finding that increased mindfulness, flow and performance correlates with reduced competitive anxiety. This study mentions Acceptance Commitment Therapy which uses “self as context view.”  Crombie, Lombard and Noakes (2011) conducted an interventional study to determine whether EI could be developed in Cricketers.   The participants were 24 players attending the South African National Cricket Academy.  The intervention consisted of ten, three hour sessions and the requirement to keep an EI journal.  EI training sessions were done in a workshop format which sought to increase EI skills by promoting interactive participation from all group members and understanding of case studies. The study found a positive association between an EI training and development program and EI scores post intervention. This study noted the limitation that there was just one facilitator, and that the effectiveness of the facilitator may have an impact on the outcomes of the intervention. Based on the information gained by this study, and others in this review, it is sensible to hypothesize that the ability to train EI in cricketers is generalizable to other team sports.

Mosewich, Crocker, Kowalski and Delongis (2013) used self-compassion training as an intervention with varsity women athletes to manage self-criticism, rumination, concern over mistakes, fostering a self-compassionate frame of mind in order to enhance coping in sports. The result was that increased self-compassion correlated with reduced self-criticism and reduced concern over mistakes. This is only one component of EI and is a notion that is addressed in the IFS model, which will be explained below. Briefly, the study addresses what would be called in IFS the “inner self-critic”  Earley (2013).  All of the interventions in the Mosewich et al (2013) study were writing modules.  As will be discussed below, this whole intervention was similar to one session of an IFS intervention with Rheumatoid Arthritis patients ( See Appendix A, sixth session).   Self-compassion is just one facet of EI to work on and learn about.  It appears to be very consequential to enhance intrapersonal skills. 

The mere participation in varsity sport appears to enhance EI, meaning the relationship between enhanced EI and sport is bi-directional. “Higher levels of emotional intelligence are associated with the ability to manage groups and teams…[f]ormer collegiate athletes had higher levels of emotional intelligence than their non-athlete counterparts.” (Sauer et al, 2013)  Sauer was a cross-sectional nationwide survey study which examined how participation in varsity athletics during college (university) affects career success in the first decade after graduation. The paper predicted that student-athletes would develop greater mentoring skills and emotional intelligence, leading to higher starting salaries as they enter the professional workforce and faster rates of salary growth as their careers progress. The paper finds that former collegiate athletes score higher on measures of mentoring and emotional intelligence and have higher salaries through the first ten years of their careers than their non-athlete counterparts. As there appears to be many theories of how to best train EI to athletes and coaches, I have explored the idea of using the IFS model for EI intervention training in the sport context.

Understanding Internal Family Systems (IFS)

Internal Family Systems (IFS) is a method by where a person is able to look within themselves, recognize that there are different parts within them, along with the core of the person (referred to as Self in IFS) and learn how they interact with each other.  IFS is a toolbox which can empower a person to recognize parts (which manifest as emotions, thoughts or feelings) and learn to respond with actions and behaviors that will be productive and beneficial in order to result in a desired outcome (Schwartz, 2001). According to the Internal Family Systems website,

“IFS is a transformative, evidence-based psychotherapy that helps people heal by accessing and loving their protective and wounded inner parts. … Just like members of a family, inner parts are forced from their valuable states into extreme roles within us. We also all have a core Self.  Self is in everyone. It can’t be damaged. It knows how to heal. …By helping people first access their Self and, from that core, come to understand and heal their parts, IFS creates inner and outer connectedness.”

IFS shows how parts are able to take over leading actions (as opposed to being lead by Self) often resulting in counterproductive outcomes.  Through IFS training a person is given the tools, or taught the process, to enable their Self to be the leader of all of the parts, and to have all of the parts, which are all good and have value, interact with each other and with Self in a beneficial way.  This methodology seems to address the intrapersonal and interpersonal skills which the Hodge (2014) and Mercedes-Rubio (2023) studies seek to develop and improve.

The main concept of IFS is that we all have natural sub personalities (parts) that are all beneficial. Some sub personalities, due to life experiences, have transitioned from having beneficial roles to having extreme roles which can result intense emotional reactions, or the closing off to all feelings. In IFS, an extreme role amounts to any action, feeling or thought that is dysfunctional. Parts can often be self-defeating. (Earley, J. 2009).  Earley also notes that the idea of sub personalities is quite similar to the concept of “schemas” in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy.  In Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy “schemas” are the destructive or disturbing thought patterns that are developed to make sense of an event in life that have a negative influence on behavior and emotions. IFS was first developed applying a systems perspective to the psyche, or an intrapersonal family.  As such, the IFS perspective can also be used in systems larger than within a single person, such as families, groups and organizations. (Earley, J., 2009).  In a group setting, IFS is used to train people in the group to understand and connect with parts, redirect problematic behavior so that they function more effectively. Building on this perspective, IFS insights can be used to work with the system that is a sports team.

IFS is Already Among the Tools to Train EI

  The IFS model has been used to develop EI, but not yet in a sport or athletic context. IFS sees the Self as “an active, compassionate leader…and internal leader who helps the system of parts continuously reorganize and relate more harmoniously.” (Dolbier, 2010).  The Dolbier study was a cross-sectional study of 207 University students, which found Self-leadership in the IFS model to be positively related to approach coping styles (dealing with issues, as opposed to avoiding them), optimism and hardiness/perceived health wellness and inversely related to ineffectiveness, interpersonal distrust and avoidance coping. This idea is echoed in the article of Fitzgerald (2020) which says that in IFS Self is characterized by compassion, calm and courage.  Fitzgerald notes in his study that random control trials show that IFS is efficacious with individuals, couples and families to promote Self-leadership.  Fitzgerald’s study method was through online surveys completed by graduate and undergraduate students in two U.S. universities, and from on Facebook. They concluded that increased Self-leadership correlates with greater individual well being, better coping strategies, greater optimism, less distrust of other and greater hardiness.

EI Training Interventions Using the IFS Model

IFS is among the most promising approaches to develop EI. Interventions based on the Internal Family Systems model, which allows participants with the intervention to get to know their different inner parts (which manifest as thoughts, feelings and/or emotions and the behavior they elicit) has been shown to be effective in improving a person’s emotional intelligence, self-awareness and self-regulatory responses, such as to pain.  (Shadick et al., 2013).  Makidon,  (2014) identifies a specific part of the IFS model that can be used to enhance self awareness.  The author is a systemic and relational therapist who wrote the article based on her clinical practice. Makidon alludes to the fact that the IFS model can be used in more contexts than just psychotherapy.  The “trailhead” intervention is a key concept within the IFS therapy model and is useful to non-IFS clinicians who believe it is important that client’s achieve insight into themselves. The trailhead method can be used outside of the context of an IFS therapy session to become aware of emotional responses to a triggering event. This is an exciting idea in that the skills learned in an IFS session can be applied in other contexts. It connects the IFS model as a tool not only to learn EI, but to apply EI to various situations, and in various contexts.

IFS was characterized as having potentialities that are far from fully developed.  (Frank, K. 2020)  The Frank article was a clinical vignette which encourages practitioners to discover new ways of thinking and working. Frank believes IFS can be used in novel contexts. The Frank article mentions neuroplastic memory consolidation, which is correctively learning new experiences (and responses) to previously emotionally triggering events. Early, J (2009) reminds us that parts can often be self-defeating.  For example, perhaps an athlete who had a very critical youth sports coach who benched the athlete for a mistake made, or berated or shamed an athlete for less than optimal or expected performance, may then react in a game later in life by being overly self-critical during an athletic competition, and react to a mistake by berating herself and being unable to move forward in the game positively, productively and with the required focus to perform well.  Although the past cannot be changed, with EI training using the IFS model, it may be possible to change the way we respond to past experiences (a malleable factor).  Perhaps in this situation the Makidon (2014) trailhead intervention, or the neuroplastic memory consolidation mentioned by Frank (2020) would help this athlete to learn a more productive response to the triggering event than self-berating behavior.  In IFS, the concept of neuroplastic memory consolidation is called “reparenting”, where old negative memories are replaced with alternative, more positive outcomes, thereby providing the brain a new schema, or productive thought and response pattern, to be attached to the old experience. (Earley, 2009).  These are concrete ideas to apply the IFS model in a novel way…in a sport context. Haddock,Weiler,Trump and Henry (2017) purport that IFS empowers clients to understand themselves and others with more compassion and confidence and to recognize their inherent capacities for effectively managing difficult emotions, beliefs, and behavior.  This makes people trained with the IFS method better prepared to avoid future recurrences of negative emotions and the counterproductive reactive behavior to those emotions.  Haddock et al (2017) was a pilot study with a purpose of examining the utility of  IFS to treat depression among a population of female university students. It used intervention of IFS treatment in one group of participants, and had another group of “treatment as usual” which were gold standard methods.  IFS results were as good as the gold standard treatments. The results of this study indicate that IFS may be a promising treatment modality for depression. This coincides with the Lane  (2010) study and its assertion that pleasant emotion correlates with optimal performance and unpleasant emotion correlates with dysfunctional performance. If  IFS can help a person “manage difficult emotions” that should lead to less dysfunctional performance by reducing unpleasant emotion.  It also coincides with Castro-Sanchez (2018) study, which notes “it is also important to practice mentally problematic situations and changes of perspective in order to approach problems on one’s own and to achieve personal growth.” Think of the EI skill of responding productively to an emotionally triggering event (as opposed to negatively reacting to it) every time a professional hockey player skates away from a taunt, as opposed to reacting with an action that will get them into the penalty box. IFS training for EI appears to address the same basic EI issues being sought to be enhanced in a sport context.

IFS and the findings of the above studies are interrelated with the Salovey and Mayer’s four branches of  Emotional Intelligence: perceiving emotion (IFS: recognizing a part is reacting, as opposed to Self);  Facilitate thought using emotions (IFS: enabling Self to lead, thereby generating a different perspective); Understanding Emotion (IFS: recognizing why a part is acting in a way that is protective and dysfunctional) and; Managing Emotion in self and others (IFS:  having Self be the leader of the parts, and work with the extreme part to redirect the dysfunctional behavior to a more productive and beneficial action.)  IFS will also help a person to recognize when others are being led by extreme parts, and to respond productively with the person’s Self, which will enhance interpersonal communications and relationships. As discussed earlier in this review, improving intrapersonal and interpersonal communication seems to be a key factor in improving team cohesion, resulting in enhanced athletic performance. (Hodge et al, 2014).

A Self-therapy model of IFS has been developed (Earley 2009).  This is important, because it allows the model to be used as an EI intervention, and can then be used by athletes and coaches on their own to deliberately practice those EI skills when the specific intervention ends.  Shadick, et al., (2013) used IFS as an intervention with Rheumatoid Arthritis patients. It was a Randomized Control Trial which resulted in significant correlations between the intervention and positive outcomes. The intervention included a 36 week training intervention of IFS principles in 12 specific topics. (See Appendix A). The outcomes in the intervention group included reduce joint pain and disease activity including increased self-compassion and reduced depressive symptoms. The Shadick study was the most detailed that I found on how IFS based intervention was delivered to a group.

We already know from Haddock et al., (2017) that IFS is an effective model particularly among college students, where it was effective in reducing depressive symptoms among female college students.  IFS was the model used as an intervention in the study of Bockler, et al (2017) which investigated the role of training-induced understanding of oneself for the enhanced understanding of others. In a large-scale longitudinal study, two independent participant samples (N = 80 and N = 81) received a 3-month contemplative training. This training was inspired by the Internal Family Systems model. Participants were volunteers recruited from the Berlin and Leipzig area in Germany.  Results found that learning to understand oneself increases the ability to understand others (to infer mental states of others known as Theory of Mind.)  It is not a far reach to anticipate that an intervention to enhance EI using the IFS model could be beneficial and effective in the context of sports. EI training using the IFS model appears to be highly applicable to sport situations. 

EI, sport and Internal Family Systems (IFS) interconnection: The Big Picture

In general, this review shows that EI, team cohesion, athletic performance, application of (psychological) skills, and Internal Family Systems are interrelated, both directly and indirectly. In order to better grasp the interconnectedness of the topics of this review, I provide a Hypothetical Causal Model (Appendix B, Figure 1.) Based on the literature reviewed, research supports that an intervention of Emotional Intelligence training based on the IFS model will impart the awareness and productive responsiveness needed to improve intrapersonal and interpersonal communication skills resulting in improved team cohesion, athletic performance and application of mental skills.  The most descriptive model of intervention using IFS was provided in the random control trial which gave rheumatoid arthritis patients IFS training interventions (Shadick, et al, 2013). What is left to develop is the adaptation of this specific model to a sport context, and the optimal timing of the intervention. Shadick et al (2013) has provided a good IFS outline to start experimenting with. Future research needs to explore EI intervention program design, including duration, as well as efforts to determine and develop  an ongoing EI training regimen to reinforce initial intervention effect outcomes.  Future EI training and development research should include a focus on other sports disciplines, including team format, as well as female sports. Crombie et al (2011). The gap in the research is how to best deliver EI training in the sport context. There is clearly a need to experiment with how IFS can best be applied in the context of sport to enhance EI in athletes and coaches.

 

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Appendix A

Shadick, et al., (2013)

Topics addressed in sessions included:

• Getting to know each other — “Where I am with my RA: Thinking in terms of different       ‘parts’ of  my personality.”
• My “Self” as my inner resource: the 8 C’s
• RA and protective parts of my personality
• RA and vulnerable parts of my personality
• Can a relationship with my “Self” help my disease?
• What is scary about self-compassion when one lives with RA?
• Moving out of fear: the meaning of “Self” leadership
• Identifying inner conflict and bringing calm, compassion, and curiosity
• Listening to my body/listening to my parts: What’s needed? Being with, not in, my emotional states 
• Speaking for, not from, my “parts”
• Vital needs, self-care, and my health
• Closure with each other and the way forward

Appendix B